Planning enquiries, collecting and analysing data, conclusions and evaluation.
Notes and quizzes readyCore topic
Revise the key ideas
Your enquiries and unfamiliar fieldwork
Geographical fieldwork investigates a question using evidence collected in the environment. The full enquiry connects a question, methods, data, analysis, conclusion and evaluation.The geographical enquiry sequence. Each stage should address the original question. Pilot work or evaluation may lead you to revise earlier decisions.
The course requires two enquiries in contrasting environments involving physical and human geography. Each uses primary data collected outside the classroom and school grounds on at least two fieldwork occasions overall.
At least one enquiry considers the interaction of physical and human geography. Your own enquiry titles, locations and methods come from your school; do not replace them with invented results.
Questions can assess your own enquiries or an unfamiliar investigation. For your work, revise actual evidence; for unfamiliar work, judge the methods and data supplied.
Keep an enquiry summary with its exact title, location, geographical idea, data collected, sampling, presentation, conclusion and limitations. These notes support that summary but do not supply your personal findings.
Questions, theory and planning
A good enquiry question is focused, geographical and answerable using obtainable evidence. Specify the variable, place or relationship rather than asking whether an area is simply good.
A hypothesis is a testable prediction, such as an expected relationship between two variables. It should be supported by a geographical reason and may be rejected by the results.
Identify independent and dependent variables where relevant. For example, distance downstream may be compared with channel width, while geology or tributaries can affect the relationship.
Choose sites that address the question and can be accessed safely and legally. A convenient site is not automatically representative of the whole study area.
Primary data are collected directly for the enquiry, such as measurements or questionnaire responses. Secondary data already exist, such as maps, census tables or weather records.
Quantitative data are numerical measurements or counts. Qualitative data describe qualities or experiences, such as interview answers and annotated photographs.
A pilot survey is a small trial. It can reveal confusing questions, unsuitable scales, equipment problems or unrealistic timings before the full collection.
Safety and ethics
Risk combines the likelihood of harm with its seriousness. Identify hazards such as traffic, slippery banks, waves, heat or contact with polluted water and plan controls.
Follow the school's risk assessment, supervision and site instructions. Do not enter moving water, work beneath unstable cliffs or cross unsafe roads to obtain a measurement.
Controls include approved safe sites, weather and tide checks, suitable equipment, group working and clear emergency procedures. Stop or adapt when conditions become unsafe.
Questionnaires should be voluntary and respectful. Explain the purpose, avoid unnecessary personal information and record data without identifying individuals.
Gain permission where required and minimise disturbance to habitats and residents. A photograph of an identifiable person may require consent.
Sampling and recording
Random sampling gives eligible units a chance of selection using a random method. It can reduce selection bias but may cluster sites and leave gaps in a small sample.Three sampling approaches. Random locations can cluster. Systematic locations use equal intervals. Stratified locations sample defined groups; the illustrated numbers are not a required allocation.
Systematic sampling takes observations at regular intervals, such as every twenty metres. It is easy to repeat but can miss patterns that repeat at the same interval.
Stratified sampling divides the population into relevant groups and samples each. It can improve representation, but relies on accurate group information and appropriate proportions.
Sample size is the number of observations. Larger samples can improve representation, but repeating the same biased method does not remove bias.
Record time, location, units, method, conditions and equipment alongside readings. A prepared sheet with clear headings reduces omissions and makes comparisons easier.
Keep the method consistent between sites. Use the same definitions, timing and equipment, and note any unavoidable changes.
Accuracy is closeness to the true value. Reliability is consistency when a method is repeated; repeated readings can be consistently wrong if equipment is miscalibrated.
Resolution is the smallest change an instrument can distinguish. Recording extra decimal places does not improve the instrument's resolution.
Examples of physical methods
Channel width can be measured across an approved safe section with a tape; depth can be measured at stated intervals only under approved supervised conditions. Record units and the actual cross-section shape.
A float gives an estimate of surface velocity: distance divided by travel time. Repeat timings; it does not directly measure the mean velocity throughout the channel.
Discharge is cross-sectional area multiplied by mean velocity. A rough width × average-depth estimate simplifies an irregular channel, and a surface float adds uncertainty; explain these limitations.
Pebble sampling can measure size or roundness at approved accessible locations. Select by a consistent rule rather than choosing only conspicuous stones.
A beach profile uses distance and slope measurements along a transect. Keep the starting point, direction and method consistent and work within approved tide and safety limits.
Infiltration comparisons require consistent soil conditions and method. Recent rain, compaction and vegetation may affect results, so note them instead of attributing every difference to one factor.
These are method examples, not claims about your class's activities. Use the exact procedures, safety decisions and measurements recorded during your own enquiries.
Examples of human methods
A pedestrian count records people crossing a defined point during a fixed period. Repeat at different times; one short count may not represent a typical day.
A land-use survey classifies buildings using a stated key. Apply the same categories throughout and record uncertain or mixed uses consistently.
An environmental quality survey scores features such as litter or noise. Clearly defined scoring criteria and comparisons between observers reduce subjectivity.
Questionnaires gather opinions or reported behaviour. Neutral wording, suitable sampling and multiple collection times help reduce leading questions and selection bias.
An interview provides detailed explanations but covers fewer people. Responses can reflect memory, personal interests or the interviewer's influence.
Photographs and field sketches document visible evidence. Label location, direction and date and avoid treating a selected image as proof of conditions everywhere.
Processing, presentation and analysis
Check data for missing values and recording errors without silently changing genuine results. Keep an audit of corrections and explain any excluded reading.
Choose presentation to match the enquiry: a line graph for change with distance, bars for categories, maps for spatial patterns or a scattergraph for two numerical variables.
Use a title, labelled axes, units, suitable scale and key. A graph that stretches or truncates an axis can exaggerate a small difference.
Calculate suitable summaries, such as mean or median and range. Compare spread as well as averages; one unusual reading can strongly affect the mean.
Describe the overall pattern using specific values, then identify anomalies. An anomaly is a result that differs from the pattern, not automatically an error to delete.
Explain patterns using geography and site observations. A relationship between two variables does not prove that one alone caused the other.
Compare primary findings with relevant secondary evidence. Differences in year, season, boundary or method may explain disagreement.
Conclusions and evaluation
A conclusion answers the original question or assesses the hypothesis using findings. State the strength of support rather than claiming proof from a small sample.
Separate a method limitation from its consequence: one weekday survey may miss weekend visitors, making the conclusion less representative of overall use.
Suggest a specific improvement matched to the limitation, such as repeating counts at defined weekday and weekend times. Explain why it would improve confidence.
Consider sample coverage, equipment, observer judgement, conditions and secondary-data quality. Explain which limitations most affect the conclusion.
Further data should resolve a particular uncertainty. More data of the same unsuitable kind may add little value.
Evaluation is a judgement about how well the enquiry answered its question. Acknowledging limitations can support a careful, useful conclusion rather than make the enquiry worthless.
Test yourself
50 questions · Random sets of 10. These quick checks support revision; practise longer explanations and justified judgements too.
Mr Kidman's Classroom